Chapter 4

On the hill of Batu Tulis overlooking Cisadane (Sadane River), two kilometres south of the present city centre of Bogor, is found an old relic called “Prasasti Batu Tulis”, or “Batu Tulis” for short, which is different from those stone monuments of Tarumanagara. As “batu” and “tulis” mean “stone” and “writing”, respectively, in the local language, “Batu Tulis” denotes a stone inscription, giving its own name to the surrounding area.

The existence of this monument had long been known also to Europeans and, according to a paper of a famous palaeographer, Dr. Poerbatijaraka [1], it was reported already in 1690 by a patrol of VOC (the Dutch United East India Company), but it was only after the late 19th century that archaeological research started [2]. The monument consisted of four pieces of stone placed in a 17×15 metre plot, and on the largest one in the middle was inscribed a nine-line note in Sunda-Kuno characters, with the following meaning:

According to Carita Parahiyangan [4] , which was written at the end of the 16th century in Cirebon, Sri Baduga Maharaja was a great king who established the Pajajaran Kingdom and ruled the whole area of West Java with its capital at Pakuan (the present-day Bogor) for such a long period as 1482–1521 [5]. Before writing about the kingdom itself, which existed for almost a century until the capital fell to the hand of Moslems in 1579, let us briefly review the history of West Java.

According to Pustaka rajya rajya i bhumi Nusantara ( The Book of Kings in the land of Archipelago), compiled in the late 17th century[6], the first kingdom that ever existed in West Java was Salakanagara, which rose in the 2nd century. Tarumanagara founded in 358 AD by Jayasinghawarman was most prosperous during the reign of the 3rd king, Purnawarman (395–434 AD), as inferred from several pieces of contemporary stone monuments, which remain to date. Although the seat of the king was supposedly located around the present-day Bogor where several stone monuments were found [7], he is said to have built a new city, “Sundapura”, near the coast for the convenience of trade, soon after his coronation in 397. This is the first appearance of the word “Sunda”, in the literature, with which the land and the people in this area are called Tanah Sunda (the Land of Sunda) and Orang Sunda (Sundanese People). The term was also applied for the Strait of Sunda (between Java and Sumatra Islands) and the Sunda Islands (archipelago from Sumatra eastward).

During the reign of Purnawarman, the territory of the kingdom ranged from Rajatapura (the bank of Ciujung) to the west and Purwalingga (the present-day Purbolinggo) or Cipamali (Breves River) in Central Java to the east, with forty-eight vassal kingdoms. In 526 AD, Manikmaya, a son-in-law of the 7th king, Suryawarman, erected a small new kingdom at Kendan near the present-day Cicalengka, east of Bandung, and in 612 AD, Wretikandayun, a great-grandson of Manikmaya moved the capital further east to Galuh, near the present-day Ciamis (the royal line continued up to 852 AD). For Kendan-Galuh kingdom, it ought to be noted that the 8th king, Sanjaya Harisdarma, is alleged to have moved to Central Java in 716 AD to become the founder of the Sanjaya Kingdom, also referred to as Mataram.

Tarumanagara itself was weakened in the middle of the 7th century, attacked by the strong Sriwijaya Kingdom in Sumatra. In 669 AD, the 12th King Linggawarman devolved the property of the kingdom to his son-in-law, Linggawarman, who founded the Sunda Kingdom and ruled the area.

The regal power of the Galuh Kingdom, which occupied the area to the east of Citarum River, was taken over by the Sunda Kingdom in the middle of the 9th century when a princess of the former married Rakeyan Wuwus (or Prabu Gajah Kulon) of the latter, but the princess's brother succeeded the throne under the name of Prabu Damaraksa Buana and became the 9th king of Sunda. During the following 300 years, the seat of the king was frequently moved from the west to the east, or vice versa. It is said that it was during this period that the different customs of the two regional, or sub-ethnic groups, merged[8].

In 1333 AD, Linggawisesa, a son-in-law of the 26th Sundanese king, Linggadewata, founded a new kingdom in Kawali, not far from Galuh in the eastern part of West Java. After then, the kings of Kawali concurrently held the kingship of Sunda for over one century, as the latter was inferior, until 1482 when, as mentioned above, Ratu Jayadewata of Kawali unified the two kingdoms and founded the Pajajaran Kingdom under the name of Sri Baduga Maharaja with its capital at Pakuan.

Although documents that describe the situation of Sunda are rare, an account is found in Zhu fan zhi (諸蕃志, Accounts of Various Barbarians) compiled by Zhao Rugua in 1225 in the South Sung Period China:

In this translation, a Chinese word, 籐篾, which may literally mean a rattan strip, has been interpreted as a bamboo panel, which is still used today for walls of traditional houses in Java and neighbouring islands as a material with good breathability, making a room quite comfortable in the hot, tropical climate (See the ikat weaver’s picture in Chapter 2). The meaning of the Chinese word, 正官, was not sure, but was interpreted as “just officials”. Since the early 13th century was the time when the Sunda Kingdom was weakened, it would not be unreasonable to assume that the country was not well administrated.

Back to the Batu Tulis stone monument. The description that Sri Baduga was crowned twice means that he was, firstly, enthroned in Kawali and secondly, ascended the throne in Pajajaran. His achievements, such that he constructed the roads to mountains, the mansion, Samida Forest and Talaga Rena Lake, were written also on Prasasti Kebantenan, a copper plate, discovered in Bukasi to the east of Jakarta.

Among them, Samida Forest is generally considered to have been the area of the present-day Bogor Botanical Garden, although one theory prefers to locate it at the area where the High-Altitude Botanical Garden exists, at Cibodas, beyond the Puncak Pass, seventy-five kilometres east-southeast from Bogor[10].

The lake of Talaga Warna Mahawijaya is no doubt Telaga Warna (Talaga=Sundanese; Telaga=Modern Indonesian), which exists in the Nature Reserve on the south col of Mt. Gede just before Puncak Pass, seventy kilometres to the south-southeast from Bogor.

I visited the lake once when I lived in Bogor accompanying a bird-watcher couple from Malaysia, but went there again recently after learning about its history. The lake, one of the sources of Ciliwung, which runs via Bogor to the Bay of Jakarta, was oval shaped, measuring 120 metres east–west and 60 metres north–south, and matched with nature as the heavy vegetation of the surrounding rainforest reflected on the water surface and chirps of birds echoed, causing me to forget the fact that it was an artificial dam constructed five hundred years ago by Sri Baduga Maharaja. According to a local gentleman, such fish as minnow, carp and ikan-mas, the largest fish being as big as one armful, lived in the water, of reportedly fifteen-metre depth at the innermost point, which was turbid with soil and plankton at the time of my visit, because it was the rainy season. To my question, he answered that the water was too cold for gurame, a famous fish in Sundanese cuisine. Although a tradition has it that a wish would be realised if one saw a pair of guardian fish, which lived there since ancient time, jump above the water surface, I had no chance.

Telaga Warna was a place where the legendary Bujangga Manik, a prince of Pakuan who became an ascetic monk, determined his mind to continue his practices during his second journey. In The story of Bujangga Manik [11], a long poem written in the 15th–16th centuries, he said, “Then I came to Mt. Ageung [Mt. Gede], that is the source of Ci-Haliwung, the sanctuary of Pakuan, the sacred lake Talaga Warna: Ah, what is my fate! I shall not be able to go straight on to visit my mother and father [in Pakuan], but visit the place of my teachers [in Java]!…”

It was in daytime with bright sunshine that I visited the lake twice, but a sacred atmosphere would have been there if it was dawn or dusk.

The year 1455 Saka (1533 AD) inscribed on the Batu Tulis was during the reign of Surawisesa, the 2nd king of Pajajaran (1521–35 AD). Although he was a king praised in Carita Parahiyangan as a great ruler, warrior and hero who won fifteen battles in fourteen years, it was only several years after his succession that some coastal areas of his territory were encroached on by Moslems who developed from Central Java. In such a vulnerable situation, he is supposed to have erected this monument to commemorate his great father.

Sri Baduga Maharaja appears in traditional tales as Prabu Siliwangi, the nickname that is more familiar among Sundanese people. Due to the fact that the traditions were the kind that used to be orally narrated in poetic phrases, called Pantun Sunda, and dictated only in the modern age, different versions of short and long length are known today even for one title. Among them, Cariosan Prabu Siliwangi (The Story of King Siliwangi) was a tale in which his early life is told. Let us follow the story in a book, Khazanah Pantun Sunda (Treasure of Pantun Sunda) [12], which, as far as I have encountered, is the most comprehensive one.

“Pamanahrasa born of Prabu Anggalarang and Queen Umadewi of Pajajaran grew up to be an elegant and smart boy. When he was nine years of age, Parbamenak, his fifteen-year-old half-brother from one of the king's concubines, had conspired to murder him from envy of Pamanahrasa’s legal right of succession. He invited Pamanahrasa to Sipatahunan River, lying that he would help Pamanahrasa with testing the latter’s ability to be the future king. The first task was to cross the river that three white crocodiles inhabited, but Pamanahrasa was able to safely reach the opposite side, as the three savage animals somehow fought and killed each other. The second task was to climb up the Sanghiang Kekeumbingan by hauling a vine by arm power. When it was achieved, Parbamenak blamed Pamanahrasa that it was a serious sin to have set foot on top of the peak, which was a sacred worship place. Having been sentenced to be a slave, the whole body of Pamanahrasa was painted black with a compound of soot and sap and his name was changed to Siliwangi, to conceal his identity, before he was sold at a port to a nakoda [captain].

“In Sindangkasih [near the present-day Purwakarta], Dewi Ambetkasih, the daughter of Ki Gedhe Sindangkasih [the first younger brother of Prabu Wangi of Sumedanglarang], had a dream one night in which a black, ugly slave appeared, accompanied by a young man, and said to Ambetkasih that he would serve her as her younger brother, if she would buy him. While she hoped the dream would come true, one day her maid brought news that a nakoda from Palembang named Minadi was wishing to sell his slave to pay for repairing his damaged boat. Ambetkasih had lost no time to speak to her parents and took the black slaves in her custody in exchange for some teak wood and a small junk. After then, there was an incident that the garden of Ki Gedhe’s palace was often damaged. Siliwangi was suspected and created a problem for Ambetkasih.

“Meanwhile, three chamberlains of Siliwangi, i.e. Parwakalih, Gelap Nyawang and Kidang Pananjung, who had been in search of their master for five years, received an instruction from a hermit at Meru Kidul and came down towards Riwahan and reached Kampung Kategan to stay in disguise at Kuwu Kawanda’s house. The village became prosperous thanks to the farming skill of the guests. One day when Kuwu delivered fruits and vegetables to Ki Gedhe, his wife was much delighted with the quality of the crops and invited the three visitors to let them repair the damaged palace garden. They instantaneously recognised that the black slave they saw was their master, but kept it secret at that moment. Next day, when Ki Gedhe, his wife and the daughter went to see the restored garden, Siliwangi was also there. To Ambetkasih, who worried whether the garden would not be damaged again, the visitors told her to shower water on the slave’s body, as a boy with a skin disease was usually afraid of being made wet. No sooner water was poured than the ugly boy turned into a handsome young man to the surprise of the watchers. Ambetkasih gladly hugged Siliwangi and asked him to become her younger brother. At first, Siliwangi was hesitant, but eventually agreed, having been urged by Ki Gedhe. When the couple were dressed and decorated in royal costume, they looked like Kamajaya and Rati [the Hindu God and Goddess of Love].”

Above is the first half of the story. The last line apparently depicted the scene of their wedding, as it was mentioned in another Siliwangi tale, Ceritera Prabu Anggalarang ( The story of Prabu Anggalarang), that the couple did marry and became the king and queen of Sumedanglarang and then of Pakuan [13].

The second half of the story begins with the scene in Singapura [14] where Prabu Singapura was upset as her beautiful daughter, Ratuna Larangtapa, received marriage proposals from kings of eighteen countries and asked the advice of Ki Gedhe Sindangkasih, his second eldest brother. Then, Ambetkasih was despatched to Singapura on behalf of Ki Gedhe, accompanied by Siliwangi, to solve the problem. Leaving aside the details, which are rather complicated and verbose, Siliwangi, who had proposed to select the bridegroom by a cockfight and intended to be the referee, was inevitably entangled in the game and eventually obtained Princess Larangtapa by beating rivals. Many other princesses who gathered there and were admiring Siliwangi unanimously became his concubines.

Although Sri Baduga was no doubt the model of Siliwangi, the setting of the scene and the origins of characters are significantly modified in Cariosan Prabu Siliwangi. For instance, (1) in the tale, a kingdom called Pajajaran had already existed and Siliwangi (Panamahrasa) was born there as a prince, whereas the real Pajajaran Kingdom was founded in a later time by Sri Baduga himself; (2) Pajajaran Kingdom was implicitly written as if it had existed within the territory of Sumedanglarang, with no indication of its capital’s location; (3) the name of the father of Siliwangi in the tale, Prabu Anggalarang, was the alternative name of the 5th king of Kawali, Wastu Kencana, in the chronicle; (4) Prabu Wangi, the name of the king of Sumedanglarang is generally the honorific name of Maharaja Linggabuwana, the 3rd king of Kawali, who was killed in Majapahit [15], etc.

In Cariosan Prabu Siliwangi, it is also noteworthy that Princess Subanglarang, the daughter of Patih Mangkbumi, or the youngest brother of Prabu Wangi, who became the second queen of Sri Baduga appeared just as a minor character, and that Princess Kentring Manik Mayang, the daughter of Prabu Susuktunggal of Sunda Kingdom, whose future marriage with Siliwangi as the third queen was to realise the unification of Kawali and Sunda Kingdoms to found Pajajaran, was not included at all.

This story was allegedly written in Sumedang around the turn of the century from the 17th to the 18th when the Pajajaran Kingdom with its capital at Pakuan had already ceased to exist, and Banten in the coastal area on the west part of the Java Sea, the Kingdom of Mataram arisen in Central Java and VOC (the United Dutch East Indies Company) at Batavia were struggling for supremacy. Although Sumedanglarang had managed to maintain its existence, its status as a country was in jeopardy. It was commented by the author of Khazanah pantun Sunda that, in such circumstances, the court of Sumedanglarang would have preferred to imagine Sumedang as the centre of the glorious Pajajaran Kingdom.

The moving of Ambetkasih to Pakuan from the old capital together with her fellow consorts of Siliwangi is written in Carita Ratu Pakuan [16], in which the procession of palanquins, decorated with gold and jewellery and topped with an ivory ball, started at the shining palace of the east, being led and followed by bands, chorusing, “Let's go to Pakuan!”, as if the procession were waving in the air like a dragon.

An episode of Siliwangi after his coronation was told in Mundinglaya Di Kusumah. One of many versions is narrated [17] as follows:

“The story begins with the scene in which one of the two queens of Prabu Siliwangi of Pajajaran, Padmawati, wished to eat a sour fruit, honje, when she was expecting a baby. Since no ripened honje was found in the country, a confidant of the king went around forests and reached Muara Beres where the confidant of the latter country was picking up the same fruit. The request of the former to hand them over was rejected, because the queen of Muara Beres, Gambir Wangi, was also pregnant. After quarrelling for a while, they realised that the two kingdoms had descended from a common origin and agreed to equally share the eight pieces of the fruits in such a condition that if the two expected babies were of different sex, they should be engaged. After the full term, Padmawati of Pajajaran gave birth to a boy, named Mundinglaya Di Kusumah, and Gambir Wangi of Muara Beres, a girl, named Dewi Asri.

“It was when Mundinglaya Di Kusumah grew up to be a handsome and smart young man that he was insistently slandered, as if he had misbehaved with a young court lady, by another queen of Siliwangi, Nyi Raden Mantri, whose son, Guru Gantangan, was much older and was already the governor of Kutabarang district. Without much investigation, Mundinglaya was jailed. This caused some turmoil in the kingdom.

“One night, Padmawati saw in a dream a beautiful kite with twenty-five golden tails that was brought almost within her reach by some invisible being. When the king summoned scholars and elders and told of his wife’s dream, a famous astrologer explained that the kite was called Salaka Domas which symbolised welfare and happiness, and that a person who obtained it would ensure the prosperity of the kingdom with eternal life. He added that the kite existing in the heaven was guarded by seven heavenly beings called Guriang Tujuh. The king called his one hundred and fifty sons, but nobody was willing to go on the dangerous journey to get the kite. Then, Padmawati remembered her son in the gaol. When her thought was delivered to Mundinglaya by two chamberlains, Gelap Nyawang and Kidang Pananjung, who both had long served him, he who had enhanced his mental culture even while in prison said that he was very eager to undertake the mission. When he was released for his expedition, Prabu Siliwangi gave him a keris called Tulang Tonggong, a treasure sword of Pajajaran.

“Mundinglaya departed for the heaven accompanied by the two chamberlains. First, they went by boat to the north to Pulau Puteri, a small island in Java Sea, to worm the secret route to the heaven and to obtain magical power from Jonggrang Kalapetong, a giant who lived there, and finally attained the aim by beating the giant. Mundinglaya Di Kusumah flew to the sky and, as expected, encountered Guriang Tujuh. When he was strangled to death and became free from both mental and physical restraints, Goddess Wiru Mananggay, the late grandmother of Mundinglaya, descended and breathed life into the body to revive him as a perfect man qualified to hold Salaka Domas. He returned to the earth, accompanied by Guriang Tujuh who had become his retainers.

“In Muara Beres, his fiancée, Dewi Asri, was in danger, being proposed marriage by Sunten Jaya, the step-son of Guru Gantangan, but Mundinglaya was able to rescue her with the help of Jonggrang Kalapetong whom he had subdued before. In Pajajaran, Mundinglaya Di Kusumah produced Salaka Domas to Prabu Siliwangi and married Dewi Asri. Thus, peace was restored in Pajajaran.”

The details of the story are significantly different between versions. As to the reason of Mundinglaya’s imprisonment, it is told, for instance, in one version, that “While Guru Gantangan and his wife, Nyai Mas Ratna Inten, were fostering Mundinglaya by request, the wife was so much absorbed in Mundinglaya Di Kusumah and forgot about her husband that the husband became angry”[18], and in another version that “Sunten Jaya, the step-son of Guru Gantangan and Nyai Mas Ratna, became envious of Mundinglaya Di Kusumah as his step-parents doted on the latter”[19], and so on. Mundinglaya Di Kusumah is considered to have been modelled after Surawisesa, the 2nd king of Pajajaran [20]. The fact that such an episode was written in Pantun Sunda suggests that some dispute about the succession of throne existed in the court even after the inauguration of Siliwangi, or Sri Baduga Maharaja.

The situation of the Pajajaran Kingdom was also documented to some extent by Europeans. The era of Sri Baduga Maharaja’s reign was already in the Age of Exploration (for Europeans), which had started in Asia by the arrival of Vasco da Gama at India in 1498, and it was the so-called Portuguese Era. Tome Pires, an adventurous young man who had abandoned his position in Lisbon as a pharmacist for Prince Alfonso and who was later to become the first ambassador to Ming of China, came to India in 1511, the year of the Portuguese acquisition of Malacca. The next year, he visited Java and other islands in the East Indies on board a vessel despatched by the Commander of Malacca, Rui de Brito, and authored a book. [21]

Whether Tome Pires himself had set his foot on Java was not certain to us; he wrote about the capital of Sunda as, “The city where the king stays most of the year is the great city of Dayo [dayeuh, town or city in Sundanese]. The city has well-built houses made of palm leaves and wood. They say that the king’s palace has three hundred and thirty wooden pillars which are as thick as a wine cask and five fathoms high [1 fathom =1.8288 m], and on top of the pillars are beautiful wooden frameworks. The city is located at the distance of two-day journey from the chief port which is called Calapa. The king is a great sportsman and hunter. In his country are numerous deer, pigs and bullocks. They do this [hunting] any time. The king has two chief wives[22] and one thousand concubines. The people of Sunda are said to be truthful… Calapa is a magnificent port. It is the most important and best of all.” Calapa, which meant Sunda Kelapa (to be renamed in later years as Jayakarta, Batavia and Jakarta), was directly linked to the capital, Pakuan, by Ciliwung River.

As other seaports, Pires listed up Bantam (the present Banten Lama), Pontang (at the estuary of Ciujung), Tangeran (now inland), Sumano (the present-day Indramayu at the estuary of Cimanuk?) and some others. As major exporting goods, he recorded 1,000 barrels of good-quality pepper, 1,000 boat-fuls of tamarind, 10 junk-fuls of rice, enormous amounts of vegetables, fruits and meat, as well as male and female slaves from their own country and from the Maldive Islands, and, as imported goods, high-quality fabrics and perfumes from India, indicating the prosperous situation of the country. Pires also mentioned that the Pajajaran Kingdom embraced Hinduism and the custom of suttee, the suicide of a wife at the death of her husband, was commonly practised.

A contemporary historian and official, Joan de Barros [23], who also left a voluminous work, estimated that the total population of Sunda was about 100,000, that of each town, some ten thousands.

After the Prophet Muhammad initiated Islam in 622 AD, the Moslems, who first advanced westward to North Africa and Balkan and finally occupied Granada in the Iberian Peninsula in 711 AD, expanded also eastward and founded their own country in India before the end of the 10th century (Ghaznavid dynasty 955–1187). Although the Moslems who came to the East Indies were not soldiers but seafarer merchants, they settled at Malacca and other port towns and spread their religion. Marco Polo who dropped in at Sumatra in the late 13th century on his way back from China (1292?) wrote in his travelogue[24] that the most part of Java Minor (i.e. Sumatra Island) was already Islamised, while, according to the hearsay of seafarers, the people of Java Major (i.e. Java Island) were idolaters. In fact, it was just around the time when two strong Hindu kingdoms, Kawali in the west and Majapahit in the east, founded in 1333 and 1293, respectively, existed in Java. In the 15th century, however, Islam began to prevail in the coastal area of Central and East Java and the first Islamic kingdom, founded in Demak in 1475, conquered the capital of Majapahit three years later.

Joan de Barros wrote in 1514, “The Islamic merchants who came from Malacca to settle in Java turned to be conquerors and occupied seaport towns along the [north] coast of the island, so that the heathens [Hindu] became unable to sail. By the attack of Islam, the latter retreated to the inland at the foot of the mountain range which lay east to west in the middle of the island.”[25]

The influence of Islam extended to West Java already during the reign of Sri Baduga Maharaja. The description in Carita Parahiyangan that “as long as the teaching of our ancestor is upheld, no enemies, neither soldiers nor mental illness, will come. Happy prosperity prevails in the north, the west and the east. Those who do not feel the prosperity of household are greedy people who learn [foreign] religion” suggests that many populations in the kingdom’s territory were already inclined to Islam. The second queen of Sri Baduga Maharaja, Nyai Subanglarang was, in fact, a Moslem who attended an Islamic school in Karawan [26]. Although one of her sons, Walangsungsang, who became the sultan of Cirebon still had respected his father, his son, Syarif Hidayat, declared independence from Pajajaran by allying with Demak in 1482. Angered by this, Sri Baduga attacked Cirebon but was stopped by the Cirebon–Demak allied army. Although Pajajaran had one thousand men and forty war-elephants, they had only six 150-ton class junks in the sea, which were not compatible with the strong navy despatched from Demak.[27]

With respect to the relation between the king of Pajajaran and Moslems, there is a tradition which tells [28]:

“The kingdom of Pajajaran was ruled by its glorious king, Prabu Siliwangi. Prabu Siliwangi had a son named Kian Santang, a man with great mystical powers. One day, Kian Santang walked on the water to Mecca and was converted to Islam. He returned to Java, assuming the name of Wali Sunan Rahmat. There he attempted to convert Prabu Siliwangi to Islam, but the latter and some of his courtiers rejected the new religion. A confrontation ensued and the king and his court fled into the Sancang forest on the south coast of Java Island, having been pursued by Kian Santang. To avoid a battle with his son, Prabu Siliwangi disappeared and turned himself into a white tiger while all his followers became Sancang tigers. They spread all over the forest and are today considered as an omen of good luck by local fishermen. In his tigrine form Prabu Siliwangi, who is said to still inhabit the area of his old court at Pakuan near Bogor, continues to watch over his descendants and the Sundanese generally.” [29]

In this connection, the famous Siliwangi Division of the Indonesian Army has been named after Prabu Siliwangi and in front of their garrison in Bandung is placed a statue of a white tiger as their symbol. The emblem of Persib Bandung (lit. Bandung United), a strong football team in Indonesia, has a head of a tiger and their home ground is called Lapangan Siliwangi (Siliwangi Field).

In his travelogue[30] of 1512, mentioned above, Tome Pires wrote that Cirebon had been a town of the heathens (Hindu) until forty years ago and he put it in the paragraph of Java, not in that of Sunda. As he also wrote, in order to prevent the further expansion of Moslems, Sri Baduga Maharaja despatched his son, Surawisesa, twice in 1512 and 1521, to Malacca to link up with the Portuguese and signed a friendship treaty on 21st August 1522 giving permission for the Portuguese to construct forts at Bantam (the present-day Banten Lama) and Sunda Kelapa. The document of the treaty remains to date in Portugal, while in Java the stone monument (called Padrao in Portuguese), which had been erected to commemorate the treaty, was accidentally found in Jakarta in 1918 and stored in the National Museum.

Since the hegemony of the Portuguese in the west part of the Java Sea was harmful for the trading of the Moslems in central Java, they gave an order to the commander of Cirebon, Fatahillah (alias Faletehan) to attack those ports, prior to the completion of Portuguese forts, and captured Sunda Kelapa in 1527, after suppressing Bantam in the previous year. The Portuguese visited there three days later on three ships without knowing that event had occurred. They were expelled and fled losing one of the ships. In 1529, they attempted to regain Sunda Kelapa by sending a fleet of eight military ships in vain and could not make contact with Pajajaran after then[31]. Although a peace agreement was signed between Pajajaran and Cirebon in 1531, the landlocked Pajajaran was weakened and their capital, Pakuan, finally fell in 1579.

A half-century later, Jan Huygen van Linschoten [32], a Dutchman who sailed to Asia on a Portuguese ship and whose book became useful for the Dutch expedition to Asia, wrote that the most important port of Sunda was “Sunda Kelapa” and that there were abundant high-quality peppers, frankincense, benzoin and nutmeg in the land of Sunda, despite the port town had been renamed by Fatahillah on 22nd June 1527 as “Jayakarta” (lit. Big victory), which corrupted as Jaccatra in Europe and Jagatara in Japan. In the 1600s, Jayakarta became the field of a power struggle between the Dutch and the English, but the former established the supremacy in 1619 and renamed it Batavia, after the Latin word, Bataaf, for Hollanders. The presence of the Dutch was solidified when they rejected the attacks of Sultan Agung of Mataram in 1628 and 1629.

One half-century later in 1687, an expedition team of VOC headed by Pieter Scipio van Ostende went south from Batavia and passed a place that was supposed to have been Pakuan, the old capital of Pajajaran, in the ravine to the west of Mt. Salak and to the east of Mt. Gede, before they reached the bay of Muara Ratu on the southern coast of Java Island for the first time as foreigners. Van Ostende reported that “the road from Parung Angsana to Cipaku[33] was wide and macadamised, and durian trees were lined on the both sides. At the end of the road was a moat, and beyond the moat was a gate. In the front was a ruined stone masonry, but expedition members were not allowed to go inside the palace, because they were non-Moslems. The area was guarded by tigers. Inhabitants were sparse around there. They still respected the former king, Prabu Siliwangi, etc.” This record indicates that the former capital with an estimated fifty-thousand population was in the state of a ghost town, one century after the fall of the kingdom. It is interesting if tigers were tamed as watchdogs, but it is written in Prof. Danasasmita's book that the tigers were probably wild ones that dwelled there[34]. Otherwise, were they the transformations of Siliwangi and his followers as told in the legend?

Van Ostende also wrote that he was told that the custodian was a noble. He was supposedly not the descendant of Pajajaran but a dignitary from Banten whoconquered there.

Three years later, VOC sent another expedition led by Captain Adolf Winker. The most important fact written in their survey report was that they entered within the wall of the castle and saw a stone monument, on which eight and a half line letters were inscribed. The stone that Winker saw must be nothing but the existing Batu Tulis, the last half-line being four words to denote the date. He also recorded that he saw three stone figures in the neighbourhood of the monument.

In 1703 and 1704, a high official of VOC, Abraham van Riebeeck (a son of Joan, the founder of Cape Town), himself went to survey Pakuan. In 1709 again, after he became the governor-general, he dropped in at the same place on his journey to the east to Cianjur across the Gede mountain mass. He was alleged to have been so taken by Pakuan that in 1704 he built a cottage that he called “Batu tulis”, near the stone monument, which was to be adopted as the names of the stone monument and the area.

After then, the area of Bogor had been almost forgotten until 1744 when Baron van Imhoff, the then governor-general of VOC, acquired his private estate and built a mansion [35], naming the place as Buitenzorg (lit. care-free village), away from the miasmatic Batavia.

Today, almost no trace of the former glory of the Pajajaran Kingdom is seen around the city, but one interesting relic besides the Batu Tulis stone monument is Situs Purwakalih (or Purwakalih Site), a site of about 4 × 3 metres located 300 metres south of the Batu Tulis monument, adjacent to which is believed to have existed the gate of the former castle. In this site, the three stone figures recorded by Winker remain. According to legends, they represented the figures of three chamberlains, Purwa Kalih (or Galih), Gelap Nyawang and Kidang Pananjung, who served the kings of Pajajaran, as the first name represents the site. The statues were of a kind that long and narrow metamorphic rocks were crudely sculpted into human shapes, and more or less resemble old dousoshin (travellers’ guardian deity) found in countryside Japan. According to my friend, Mrs. E., who went along with me there, they would have originally been some stoneworks of prehistoric time. Among the three figures, Parwa Kalih’s figure was seriously damaged and lacked its head, presumably having been broken by the hand of Moslem conquerors, and the figure itself of the third one was very rough and obscure.

As written above, all three characters appeared inCariosan Prabu Siliwangi, and the second and the third ones inMundinglaya Di Kusumah [36]. Although they who served the kings of many generations were old, they are believed among Sundanese people to have had eternal lives. [37]

While these remains had been surveyed in 1911 by Cornelis Marinus Pleyte, a pioneer Javanese archaeologist, they were hidden in the soil until 1991 when they were accidentally rediscovered during the road-widening work and cleaned.

An account of the relics of the palace was found in Serat Centhini (The Centhini Story) [38], a travel record of the early 17th century, which I obtained recently. It was about a half-century after the fall of the Pajajaran Kingdom’s capital, Pakuan, that Raden Jayengresmi and his two followers from Giri, East Java, arrived at Bogor. Welcomed by the village chief, Ki Wargapati, they then visited the ruin of the palace.

“There is a large pool full of fresh water. According to a legend, if the husband and the wife of a childless couple take bath in the pond everyday, they will be blessed with a baby within a matter of three days or seven days. Close to the pond are several pieces of stones covered by flowers. It is said that one’s wish will come true if he/she prays to the stone. Since this tradition is famous, many people came from far away places. This stone is called Kyai Selagilang.”

Although the name, Kyai Selagilang is not found other than inSerat Centhini, one of the stones must be the Batu Tulis, which remains to date [39]. Raden Jayengresmi prayed to this stone and, with the help of some men arranged by Ki Wargapati, successfully built a hermitage on the plateau on the western slope of Mt. Salak where fresh water streamed and beautiful flowers blossomed. Raden Jayengresmi and his followers stayed there for a while to practise asceticism.

Why are the remains and relics of the Pajajaran era so few? While documents are assumed to have been neglected, if not intentionally destroyed by Moslems, the question remains why stone masonries, even their foundations, are invisible. Although it is a mere layman’s idea, they might have been buried under the earth by volcanic ash and landslides, as Mt. Salak and Mt. Gede to the west and east were always active [40]. Natural disasters would have urged inhabitants of Pakuan to evacuate from the area, in the land of Sunda, where the saying that “a people can subsist without a king… but it is even impossible to conceive a thought of a king without a people” [41] was also true.

Buitenzorg was developed as a modern city after 1870 when the private mansion of van Imhoff was made the official residence of the governor-general of the Dutch East Indies. Having been renamed as Bogor after the independence of Indonesia, it has grown to the present big city with a one-million population including the suburbs. The area of Pakuan Castle is densely housed to the extent that archaeological excavation is hardly possible.

When Pakuan fell to the hand of Moslems in 1579, nobles of Pajajaran fled to a vassal country in Sumedang, some 150 kilometres east by southeast, with the crown and other heirlooms of Pajajaran. Prabu Geusan Ulun, the king of Sumedanglarang, who warmly welcomed them, declared that he would be the successor of Pajajaran, but it was only until the end of his reign (1601) that they were able to resist the Moslems and, in his son’s time, they were put under the rule of Sultan Agung of the Mataram of Central Java.

In Prabu Geusan Ulun Museum, named after the king, are held several dozen pieces of treasures from Pajajaran, which include a golden crown, accessories, small furniture, decorated hats, etc., along with the treasure keris and other belongings of Prabu Geusan himself, all in immaculate condition. For many generations, the people of Sumedang must have made efforts to keep those Sundanese heritages, lest they should be passed to the hands of the Islamic conquerors and the Javanese. I was quite impressed that the high-level craftsmanship that produced those elegant and delicate fretworks and reliefs existed there in the period contemporary to the Adzuchi-Momoyama Era in Japan, but the tradition was not succeeded after the Islamisation. The building of this museum, which used to be the house of the Bupati (Regional Governor [42]) built during the Dutch time, was not gorgeous but neat and tidy, retaining the good atmosphere of old days.

In addition to those treasures mentioned above, there was some furniture, old documents, sets of gamelan instruments, a big dragon-human-pulled carriage, etc. Among them, the most interesting to myself were three old books, one of them being entitled Kitab Cariosan Prabu Siliwangi (The Story Book of Prabu Siliwangi), labelled as a belonging of Prince Panenbahan (1656–1706). It must be one of the earliest copies of the book, although whether it was the very original copy was not sure. The material of the three books resembling traditional Japanese paper was called “daluang” prepared by hammering the white inner bark of paper mulberry tree ( Broussonetia papyrifera). The letters were written in black ink. I knew that daluang was used for wayang beber [43] but saw a book of the same material for the first time[44]. The second book was Kitab Waruga Jagat (1675) on the regional history, which also belonged to Prince Panenbahan, and the third one was Al Qur’an with some colour ornaments, which was owned by Prince Soeria Koesoemah Adinata (1836–82). I was touched by the fact that the technique to make the traditional daluang paper was still preserved in the middle of the 19th century when the modern paper-making technology must have been already common.

In the Bogor Botanical Garden, under the shed of trees on the bank of Ciliwung River, one finds a small graveyard of some ten metres square, surrounded by an iron fence, in which three Islamic-style tombs are laid. They were said to be the graves of the Pajajaran time. According to a booklet[45] that someone once showed to me some ten years ago, the front one inside of the gate was the tomb of Ratu (Queen) Galuh Mangka Alam Prabu Siliwangi and the other two were those of Pangrima (War Commander) Mbah Djepara and Patih (Minister) Eyang Baul, who both served the king of Pajajaran. No other literature that mentioned these three names was found at that time.

I had then imagined. Although Siliwangi was originally the nickname given to Sri Baduga Maharaja, it was also applied to other kings of the same royal line. From the fact that the tomb of the king did not exist, the husband of Galuh Mangku Alam could have been a different person, e.g. Suryakencana, the last king of Pajajaran, whose name was to remain in the main shopping street in the present-day Bogor and who abandoned Pakuan and went into exile in Kaduhejo on the foot of Mt. Palasari in the western part of the kingdom’s realm, before the Moslems came to capture the capital in 1579. If so, a certain Moslem wife of his would have failed to persuade her husband to convert his religion from Hindu to Islam and remained separately in Pakuan together with the minister and the war commander and buried in this place, etc.

Several years later, a similar story with regard to this graveyard appeared in a novel as the words of a character, “To tell the truth, four people were buried there. One of them was Prabu Siliwangi [1474–1531], but his tomb is invisible to our eyes. The tomb in front of us belongs to his second consort, Ratu Galuh Mangku Alam. The tomb on the upper step is for Mbah Jepara and the one on the right-hand side is for Eyang Baul, the king’s war commander. These graves were created about 600 years ago in the 1450s.[46]” If this Prabu Siliwangi was Sri Baduga Maharaja, Ratu Galuh Mangka Alam could be identified as the second queen, Nyai Subanglarang, who was an Islam believer, and the style of the tomb matched her. Nevertheless, this was not certain, as the name Ratu Galuh Mangku Alam has not been found in historical documents, as far as I have searched.

In an internet article[47], it was written that the three tombs used to be humble stone mounts with no epitaphs and one of them was even suspicious as to whether what was buried in it was a human or an animal, and that they were reinterred in the 1980s by Mr. Aang Kunaefi, the then Governor of West Java, who felt pity for the queen and the retainers. A question remains whether those three persons were really Moslems. According to my friend in Bogor, the names and titles had no hint of Islam, so the possibility that their religion was traditional Hinduism was undeniable. Then, it was probable that the Islamic grave-style might have been adopted for the sake of convenience when the graveyard was reformed by Mr. Kunaefi.

The graveyard is always cared for by a few people who mow weeds and offer flowers. Whatever their religion, people of Sunda still have affection for the kingdom of Pajajaran. Whenever I visit there, I think of the ancient time and offer some small notes.

The tombs are considered to have existed since before van Imhoff acquired the land for his manor in 1744, a part of which was to be given for Reinwaldt to open the Botanical Garden in 1817. In fact, the graveyard does not seem to be under the management of the Botanical Garden, as no relevant description is written in its brochures and guidebooks. Whether the theory that the palace of Pajajaran had existed on the ground on which the Buitenzorg Palace (the present Bogor Palace) was built [48] is right or not, the possibility that some construction would have existed could not be denied, as the area was allegedly the holy Samida Forest, and was the best place on Bogor Hill. While writing this, I remembered the history of Colchester, England, where I once lived for a couple of years. The Norman Castle, which still remains in the town centre on the hill of Colchester, was constructed in the 11th century on the original place of the ancient Claudius Temple built by the Romans in the 1st century, as proved by archaeological excavation. No plan to dig and survey the underground of Bogor Palace is heard.

Let us pick up some topics with regard to the period after the Sunda Kingdom inherited Tarumanagara in 669 until the Pajajaran Kingdom was established at Pakuan in 1482.

Relatively recently, I was informed that the remains of the Galuh Kingdom existed to the east of Ciamis and I visited there. In front of the entrance of the site, there was a board saying, “Welcome to Ciung Wanara Karang Kamulyan”, and another board on which nine kings who resided there were listed along with their periods of reign [49].

Inside the gate was a jungle of various rank trees and bamboo, and about fifty metres ahead of the path, which was like a tree tunnel, was a rectangular open space that was a little larger than a tennis court, surrounded by a low-height stone embankment. In the innermost part of the space was a white square stone about one metre wide and fifty centimetres high, called Pangcalikan, which, according to the guide, used to be the place where the kings had audiences, but looked a little shabby for a royal seat even though it was equipment of the 7th–8th centuries. Further ahead were places for prayer and maternity. There was also anarea with a long stone, standing upright, which was presumably the tomb of a noble. One interesting place was an area of about ten metres diameter in the bottom of a depression, which was said to be a pit for cockfighting. I learnt that cockfights had been common even in ancient time. Although it was a favourite game of Javanese people, cockfighting was prohibited in modern times because of its high speculativity. Several hundred metres ahead in the southeast corner of the site was the confluence of the Citanduy and Cimuntur rivers, which came from the west and north, respectively. On the voluminous, muddy water of ochre colour, a few pleasure boats were seen. I realised that, with the north, east and south sides of the rectangular Karang Kamulyan site of about twenty-five hectares being edged by rivers, the site was chosen for the royal capital not only from the viewpoint of transportation but also from defence.

“Ciung Wanara”, a nickname of the 10th king of the Kendan/Galuh Kingdom (the 8th of Galuh Kamulyan), was probably prefixed to the name of the remains because it was popular among Sundanese people as a title of Pantun Sunda. The story goes as follows [50]:

“It was when King Sang Permana Kusumah of Galuh was aged and intended to retire from the world that he noticed the desire of Minister Aria Kebonan to be a king. The king called the minister and told him to rule the country but not to harass his two empresses, Pohaci Naganingrum and Dewi Pangrenyep. After his departure to Mt. Padang [51], Aria Kebonan, who somehow resembled the king of ten years younger age, behaved rapacious, declaring the title of Raden Galuh Barma Wijaya.

“In the hermitage on Mt. Padang, an ascetic, Ajar Sukaresi, saw some light from the sky entered the palace and the bodies of the two empresses. Meanwhile, Naganingrum dreamt the stars fell on the moon and Dewi Pangrenyep, a sharp sunlight penetrated the seabed. Barma Wijaya did not believe the dreams and summoned an ascetic from Mt. Padang, but he did not appear soon, just sending some jasmine flowers and turmeric. Barma Wijaya who felt insulted, ordered the empresses to pretend to be pregnant by putting a pot on each stomach. The ascetic, Ajar Sukaresi, who was the former king, Sang Permana Kusumah [52], arrived there and asserted that they were six months pregnant and that both babies would be male. Barma Wijaya was angry and stabbed the ascetic with a keris. The ascetic did not die, as the keris broke into three pieces, but he understood the aim and transformed himself into a snake called Naga Wiru.

“Dewi Pangrenyep first gave birth to Raden Aria Banga. The baby in the womb of Naganingrum voiced and warned the greedy king that the country will soon be destroyed. When Naganingrum delivered the baby, Dewi Pangrenyep who was envious of her fellow concubine swapped the baby with a puppy. The baby was put in a casket with a piece of egg and washed away into Citanduy River, whilst the mother who was sentenced to death was saved by a loyal chamberlain and put in a forest. The casket was found by Aki and Nini Balangantrang in a fish trap installed in the river and the baby was fostered by the couple. After the baby grew to a boy, the boy flew to the air and saw that the heaven and the earth were still separate, a sign that he was entitled to get some inheritance. The child created a village for Aki and Nini.

“One day Aki and the boy went for hunting to the forest with blowguns. When the boy saw a bird and an animal, and asked their names, Aki taught that they are called ‘ciung’ and ‘wanara’, respectively. Then the boy said he must be called Ciung Wanara. From Aki, Ciung Wanara heard of his identity that he was the son of the former king of Galuh and his empress, Naganingrum.

“The egg which had been found along with the baby in the trapped casket turned into a cock, named Si Kakat Beds, when incubated by Naga Wiru. When a cockfight contest was announced from the court, Ciung Wanara wished to challenge Barma Wijaya. The latter who was confident in winning the game with his magical cock, Si Kakat, accepted Ciung Wanara’s challenge, agreeing that the west part of the territory would be submitted to Ciung Wanara, if he was to lose. Si Kakat Beds won the game to obtain the west part of the kingdom for Ciung Wanara. Ciung Wanara was not quite satisfied, as he must be the crown prince of the kingdom. One day he made a beautiful iron cage. When Barma Wijaya and Dewi Pangrenyep came to inspect it and just entered the door to see the inside, Ciung Wanara lost no time to close it. Aria Banga who saw this incident asked Ciung Wanara to free them, but this was not agreed. Then a severe fight began between them and, finally, Aria Banga was hurled by Ciung Wanara to the east of Cipamali River. Thereafter, Ciung Wanara and Aria Banga ruled the western and the eastern parts of Java Island bordered by the river.”

That an iron cage was used in the 8th century might sound unrealistic, but it could be possible to make one by the forge-welding method by employing the tempering technique, which existed since ancient time to make keris and other weapons.

Lutung Kasarung, another title of contemporary Pantun Sunda that must be related to Manisuri (or Dharmasakti), the son-in-law of Ciung Wanara, is also famous. One version, which was written in a picture book like a fairytale, is as follows [53]:

“Guru Minda, the son of Dewi Sunan Ambu in Kahyangan [Heaven] was transformed into Lutung Kasarung [Black Monkey] and pushed down to the earth, because he wished to love her mother. He was taken to the palace by a hunter, where Purba Rarang, the elder daughter of Prabu Tana Agung, was monopolising the power by poisoning her younger sister, Purba Sari, to suffer from a skin disease and isolating her in the forest. She did it as she was jealous when the king was about to hand over the throne to the younger sister in accordance with the custom. Lutung Kasarung who was expelled from the palace, disliked by Pruba Rarang, met grief‐stricken Purba Sari in the forest, where Sunan Ambu occasionally appeared and gave her hand. Purba Sari was actually born to Prabu Tana Agung and his queen when they wished to have a beautiful daughter like Dewi Sunan Ambu who had appeared to their bedside. When Purba Sari bathed in a pond created by the tears of Sunan Ambu, her skin was healed and she revived into a beautiful princess.

“Although Purba Rarang gave various difficult problems to the younger sister, Lutung Kasarung solved them one by one. Purba Sari went to the palace. As soon as she heard the voice of heaven and declared that she was the legal successor, Lutung Kasarung took off his coat and turned into a handsome young man. They ruled the country wisely and the kingdom of Galuh prospered.”

The episode that the pond water was effective for the skin disease of Purba Sari could mean that it was hot-spring water from volcanoes existing in the surrounding areas.

Among various long and short versions of Pantun Sunda [54], a story recorded in Stamford Raffles’s The History of Java [55] , probably a dictation of a narration, is very specific in that the above two stories were connected. In short, it is written that Lutung Kasarung was the name given by his father, Ciung Wanara, together with a black-monkey coat, and that a son born between Lutung Kasarung and Purba Sari was Silawangi (Siliwangi) who became the king of Pajajaran, which prospered under his reign. Although there was actually a time difference of more than 600 years from the end of Galuh in the middle 9th century to the foundation of Pajajaran in the late 15th century, presumably the narrator would have linked the two historical heroes by his own idea in this fictional tale. One point that is common in both Lutung Kasarung and Siliwangi stories can be that both of them encountered their future partners, Purba Sari and Ambetkasih, respectively, with their identities hidden, being covered by the black-monkey coat or being painted with a black mixture of soot and sap.

The Raffles story furnished some knowledge of contemporary social background. For instance, (1) fishermen installed traps in the river; (2) rice-growing was propagated; (3) a significantly large ship was used to travel along the southern coast of Java Island; and (4) various plays were performed in the feast at Pakuan.

Most of Pantun Sunda, including those cited above, were based on episodes of kings and princes during the period from Kendan/Galuh to Pajajaran kingdoms and, despite being written in poetic phrases, they were principally the kind orally told to public audiences. It was natural because the literacy of common people pervaded only after the beginning of the 20th century with the introduction of primary education, but it does not mean that no high-literary poems were written even when the number of readers was limited. A famous example was Bujangga Manik, a long poem of 1,575 octosyllable lines presumably written in the late 15th or the early 16th century. In short, the story was as follows [56]:

“Despite he was a prince of Pakuan, Ameng Layaran (alias Bujangga Manik) became an ascetic monk and travelled around Majapahit in Java, but once returned home sick for his mother. Although his mother urged him to marry Princess Ajung Laran who longed for him, he departed for another journey and reached Bali via Java. Having seen that Bali was highly populated, more than Java, he returned to the territory of Pajajaran and, after roaming around, settled halfway down Mt. Patuha [57] to create a sacred place. He erected a jewelled linga [58], built several pavilions furnished with a kitchen, a shed for firewood and a place for threshing, and completed his practice after nine years. In the tenth year, his body ended without illness, but his soul ascended to beautiful heaven.”

Although the story itself was rather simple, his high mental spirituality was mentioned in many parts of the poem. In addition, a detailed description was given on various scenes throughout the whole volume and the itinerary, particularly of the second trip, was minutely recorded, providing me with useful knowledge of contemporary manners and customs and topography.

In the scene of his visit to her mother after his first journey, for instance, the room where the mother stopped weaving and welcomed Bujangga Manik was situated in a high-floored mansion, decorated with a seven-fold curtain and furnished with a gilded Chinese chest. The cloth she was weaving was an ikat with cotton yarn dyed in red, blue and yellow. From a line of the poem, she was supposed to be an aunt of Siliwangi. When Jompong Laran (probably a relative lady) who had seen Bujangga Manik told Princess Ajung Laran that “he is well-matched for you. He is exceedingly handsome, more than Siliwangi, he is highly intellectual and speaks Javanese, etc.”, the princess presented a tray of betel with her love to Bujangga Manik by entrusting it to Jompong, a tray of betel that she carefully prepared with leaves of sirih (Piper betle), nuts of pinang (Areca catechu), lime stones, fragrant sandalwood, etc., all of the best quality, covered with a ceremonial cloth. The ships that Bujangga Manik took during his trips (from Pamalang, Central Java, to Sunda, and to and from Bali in the first and second journeys, respectively) were large junks [59], the original countries of her crew members having been various, depending on their expertise. On departure, guns were fired seven times, shawms were played, gongs and cymbals were tolled and sailors sung boat-songs.

A question remains about who the composer of this poem was. It would be almost certain that only the traveller himself was able to write, or dictate, the detailed itinerary with the names of mountains, rivers and villages. I should like to conjecture that the whole volume, including the scenes of the death of the hero and the ascension of his soul to the heaven, were composed by a certain prince named Ameng Layaran himself prior to the end of his life.

A set of four pieces of stone discovered in Cibadak village, forty kilometres south of Bogor, with an inscription of forty lines, recorded that the monument was erected on the 12th day of the white-half of the month, Kartica in the year 952 Saka (11th October 1030 Gregorian) by King Maharaja Gaped of Sunda who, according to Pustaka rajya rajya i bhumi Nusantara (The Book of Kings in the Land of Archipelago) , was the 20th King of Sunda who reigned 1030–42. Since the notice in the inscription was something like, “Fishing in the river in a region from one upstream point to another downstream point is forbidden”, it is my own view that such stone monuments might have been placed also in some other places. Since the language used was the Sunda Kuno (Old Sundanese), it is considered that the colour of Indian heritage seen in the age of Tarumanagara would have already faded out and that the Sunda Kingdom was the kingdom of Sundanese people [60].

Around that time, in Central Java, the Sailendra and Sanjaya kingdoms prospered and erected such magnificent temples as Borobudur and Prambanan, whereas no such fine monuments were left by Hindu kingdoms in Sunda probably because they had to frequently move their capitals suffering from floods and volcanic eruptions and had insufficient funds to build big monuments.

The only one Hindu temple that remains in West Java is the well-known Candi Cangkuang discovered in 1966 by the lakeside of Bagendit in Leles village in the suburb of Garut[61]. Since a hot spa existed on a near-by mountainside, the lake itself was a popular resort ever since the old days.

When Marquis Tokugawa visited there in the 1920s, he wrote in his travelogue, Journeys to Java [62] , that his party was welcomed with angklung [63] music played by local children and offered flowers from lovely girls. I have visited this sightseeing spot twice in the last decades when the same atmosphere still remained.

When my friend and I crossed the lake on a small boat called a “sampan”, a candi about eight metres tall appeared. It was a typical Hindu-style temple with a motif of Semeru (Mt. Meru) just like candis in Prambanan in Central Java and Singasari in East Java. Although it was much smaller than those in Java, I thought the reassembling of scattered stone pieces must have been hard work, like the solving of a three-dimensional jigsaw puzzle. When we walked close to it, however, there were no reliefs such as those carved on the candis of Java. There was no Kala’s head [64] on the beam of the gate either. In the niche, there was a small stone statue of about one-metre height, which was recognised to be a carving of Siva sitting cross-legged on Nandi from the head of an ox seen underneath, although the face was not clear. The statue must be a pretty old one, as the surface was quite rough, due probably to the weathering, and its waist part was apparently broken and bonded, but the size was small for the space of the niche. (Above was the observation in February 2000 and, if not mistaken, the niche was empty when I visited ten years earlier.) Thus, there was no awe-inspiring atmosphere that one feels in old shrines and temples in general. Around there was no board to explain the history such that is commonly seen in other sightseeing sites. After returning home, I had a look in several books, but no detail of this particular candi was found.

A rumour said that what had actually remained was only the stone foundation of 4.7 m × 4.7 m square, which was estimated to have been laid around the 8th century and the candi itself was designed and built by someone of modern times. Then, I remembered that the shape of the candi was more or less similar to that of Candi Pawon near Borobudur in Central Java. Nevertheless, some stone building must have existed at the site of Cangkuang according to a book [65] in which it was written that the stone blocks found around there were re-used for Islamic tombs.

Relatively recently, I learnt that another ruin of candi existed in the vicinity of Cicalengka, thirty kilometres east of Bandung, and visited there. The excavation site was found in a small village called Bojongmenje, where we were received by Bapak M., a dilettante historian from Banten, who had been working alone ever since the discovery of the ruin in 2002. In the middle of the field of some one-quarter acre fenced with iron net was a stone foundation of five metres square, and several hundred stone blocks were piled up in a corner of the field, as well as in a work shed, in a disorderly manner. Among them were some pieces on which some patterns were engraved, although they were quite blurred by weathering. There was a special piece, a stone ball of about 15 cm diameter, which was supposed to have been the orb on the tower placed on a cubic block. Bapak M. told us that there was a small statue of Nandi (sacred bull), but it was moved to a museum in his home town for security reasons. He lamented that the authority did not give much support to his excavation.

Around Cicalengka must have been the place where the Kendan Kingdom, founded in 516 AD by Manikmaya, a son-in-law of King Suryawarman of Tarumanagara, had existed for a period of one century until the capital was moved to Galuh in 612 AD. If the candi was the one built in that period, it must be pretty old, or even older than those candi remaining in Central Java. Later, I found an article that mentioned an archaeological view that the candi was the construction of the 7th–8th centuries [66].

It was in 1357 when the capital of Sunda was in Kawali that an incident, which is still remembered as “The Tragedy of Bubat” among Sundanese people, happened. At that time, the Majapahit Kingdom with its capital in East Java was in the zenith of its prosperity under King Hayam Wuruk, with the aggressive service of Premier Gajah Mada (short name for Maha Padi Madah), ruling East and Central Java, and expanding its territory to Sumatra, Borneo and other outer islands.

When Hayam Wuruk, who was still single and looking for his consort, received a portrait of a renowned peerless beauty, Princess Dyah Pitaloka Citraresmi of Sunda, from a painter, Sungging Prabangkara, whom he had despatched to Sunda to draw her picture, Hayam Wuruk immediately fell in love with the figure in the picture and sent a messenger to Sunda to ask for the princess’s hand. The Sundanese side welcomed the proposal, but some royal family members objected to the request to conduct the wedding ceremony in Majapahit, because the visiting of the bridegroom’s side to the bride’s side was common at that time [67]. King Maharaja Linggabuana finally said it did not matter and started on a voyage to Majapahit accompanying Queen Dewi Lara Linsing, Dyah Pitaloka and some family members as well as some ministers and imperial guards, with a big fleet of 200 vessels and small boats, 1,000 in number. At the time of embarkation, they saw that the blue sea water turned to red, a bad omen, but sailed off the port and ten days later arrived at Bubat on the bank of Brantas River in the suburb of Majapahit’s capital. There, they were told by Gajah Mada, who hid an ambition [68] to conquer the whole Java Island and get the better of the king, that Dyah Pitaloka was not to be received as the queen but would be a tribute, and that the Sundanese kingdom should be a dependency of the Majapahit kingdom.

With no means of asking the true wishes of Hayam Wuruk, being surrounded by Gajah Mada’s army, King Maharaja Linggabuana decided to fight as a warrior rather than to be affronted. He told the queen and daughter to return to Sunda, but they said they would stay there. When the battle started, the Sundanese fought well, despite that they were much inferior in number. The king was a good warrior and beat many enemies, but the king and all Sundanese men died on the battlefield of Bubat. Having seen the disastrous scene, Dyah Pitaloka, Queen Lara Linsing committed suicide and the second queen of Sunda and wives of ministers followed [69].

Hayam Wuruk must have been truly wishing to marry Dyah Pitaloka and to establish a kinship with the Sundanese Kingdom. He, who at last realised the treachery of Gajah Mada, collapsed on the body of his deceased fiancée, which he found in the field and vowed that he would join her soon to be united with her forever. He sent a Balinese ambassador who had been there to be the witness of the expected wedding to Sunda to deliver his apology to Minister Eyang Bunisora Suradipati, King Linggabuana’s brother, who was in charge of the kingdom during the absence of the king. After conducting the ritual, Hayam Wuruk pined away and died shortly afterwards. After the magnificent royal funeral, which was held for one month and seven days with various performances, Gajah Mada, who was accused by the uncles of the king, meditated for a while and disappeared as if his body evaporated.

Above is the brief summary of a poem, called Kidung Sunda (Song of Sunda) [70], written around 1550 AD by an anonymous author and discovered in the modern age in Bali, to which some names of characters and some backgrounds were supplemented with reference to the descriptions in such other books as Pararaton ( Book of Kings)[71] and Carita Parahiyangan. A literary work, the poem includes some modifications in the light of the real history. In fact, Hayam Wuruk survived until 1389 AD, while Gajah Mada died in 1364 AD in Probolingo in the eastern province of Java, according to Desawarnana (also called Nagarakertagama) [72], which is reputed as the most reliable chronicle. With respect to the details of the story, there are various versions. [73] For instance, opinions split whether after the incident Gajah Mada retired himself or he was dismissed by the king. As to the origin of the incident, there seems to be a theory that Gajah Mada had just simply misunderstood Hayam Wuruk’s will to face the Sundanese, but it would be too sympathetic to Gajah Mada. It is also said that the cause of the death of Gajah Mada was an injury that he had suffered by Dyah Pitaloka who had joined the battle with a kujang (knife) inherited from the time of Tarumanagara.

The location of Sunda’s capital is not found in Kidung Sunda, but it must have been Kawali. They are supposed to have sailed downstream to the mouth of Citanduy River and turned around the coast of Java Island clockwise to the bank of Brantas River. It would have been possible to cover the distance of 1,000 kilometres in ten days, as the royal vessels were said to have been multiple-sail Chinese-style junks, which were common ever since the occasion of the invasion by Mongolians. [74], [74a]

Once I visited the site of the old Majapahit capital, present-day Trowulan, near Mojokerto, forty kilometres south of Surabaya, where in an area of five kilometres square were magnificent gates, temples and bathing places of Hindu style, and where a huge water reservoir of some 400 × 200 metres [75] remained full of water. The excavation of the keraton was still continuing and the meditation room was just exposed. It was a small cell of about 1 × 3 metres, which looked unbalanced for the big building of over 1,000 square metres, but I thought it might have fitted the purpose and imagined the figure of Hayam Wuruk who would have sat and crouched in it after the carnage in Bubat.

In this old capital, one fact that was impressive to me was that most of the buildings were made not of stones but of fine bricks of 37cm × 21cm × 7 cm[76], proving that they had not only advanced technology of mass production but also a sort of industrial standard. Later, I found a similar observation inThe Malay Archipelago authored by Alfred Russel Wallace in 1869[77]. In The Overall Survey of the Ocean’s Shores (Ying-yai Sheng-lan, 瀛涯勝覧, 1416), Ma-Huan (馬歡) who accompanied the great expedition of Admiral Zheng-He (鄭和) of Ming Dynasty, only wrote about the standards of volume and weight in Java (Majapahit) [78], but also the standards of length must no doubt have existed there.

The Trowulan Museum held a very large collection of stone statues, reliefs, ceramics, metal pieces and other artefacts, and a terracotta figure of Gajah Mada’s head caught my eyes. I murmured, “Does not his face look treacherous?” Was it because of a prejudice of myself who, having lived in Sunda for some years, was inclined to the Sundanese? When I asked the director of the Museum about the site of the Tragedy of Bubat, he corrected my words, saying, “Ah, the Incident of Bubat!”, and put a mark on my map. Indeed, for Javanese people, it was probably a small incident that occurred during the golden age of Majapahit. The field of Bubat behind the museum did not offer any image of old battleground and the air was peaceful, farmers’ houses standing here and there and vegetables growing under the tropical sun. In Desawarnana, it was written that tall buildings stood in Bubat and religious services and fighting competitions were held in the middle of the field, but no account was given on the Bubat War in this book, which assumed the nature of paean for the monarch.

Since I have repeatedly written “West Java of Sundanese people and Central and East Java of Javanese people”, readers might wonder why not all inhabitants in Java Island were not Javanese. In fact, I myself was quite astonished when, soon after I settled to live for the first time in Java Island in Bandung in 1990, a girl student who came to my house said, “My parents went to Java.” Despite that both Sundanese and Javanese descended from the same Southern Mongoloid stock and they were racially not different, they had little contact with each other from ancient times, as Europeans clearly distinguished Sundanese and Javanese people and, even in the 16th century, misunderstood that Sunda and Java were geographically two separate islands. Although 200 years have passed since the unified rule started under the Dutch administration and sixty years since the Republic of Indonesia was formed, Sundanese people still insist that they are different from Javanese and that West Java is the territory native to Sunda. Their consciousness seems to be as strong as, or even stronger than, those of the Scottish people against the English who are different in their origins[79].

If I was asked how Sundanese and Javanese people would abuse each other, I might answer, “the Sundanese would say that the Javanese were snobbish and cunning, whereas the Javanese would say that the Sundanese were vain and tactless.” At least to the Sundanese, it seems that the Tragedy of Bubat is still unforgettable. They say there used to be a saying that their daughter should not be allowed to marry a Javanese man, before love marriage became common as today. Tome Pires wrote, “Sundanese and Javanese rival with each other. Sundanese are braver than Javanese. Sundanese are honest and Javanese are not credible.” Friends from Bogor and Bandung who heard this five-hundred-year-old comment for the first time were quite satisfied and delighted, whereas those from Java frowned and said, “It is a prejudice.”

When the Indonesian government chose National Heroes (Pahlawan Nasional), after the independence of the country, from people from the past to the present, Gajah Mada was chosen as one of them, and his name was put on the newly established university (Gajah Mada University in Yogyakarta) as well as on streets in many cities in the country, but not in West Java at all. Since Gajah Mada is quite unpopular in Sunda, I would like to advise readers not to bring the achievement of Gajah Mada into conversation in West Java. It is the same as the saying in Japan, “Do not praise Iyeyasu [Tokugawa] in Osaka”. For Sundanese people, Prabu Siliwangi is much more popular, despite that he has no stamp of the government.

What is then the feeling of Sundanese people against Fatahillah who occupied Bantam, Sunda Kelapa and all other ports along the West Java coast and finally extinguished the Pajajaran Kingdom? It was when I went to see the excavation of remnants in Banten Lama (old Bantam) that a member of the troop who engaged in the work told me in chitchat, “The Islamisation in Indonesia was peacefully achieved.” To my questions, “Indeed, the Arabs did not come here on warships but ‘The Koran in the left hand and a sword in the right hand’ was the tradition of Islam. Wasn’t it? Was Fatahillah able to take this port without blood?”, no clear answer returned. Probably, even though a historian, she was unprepared to argue the achievement of a person who played a role for the propagation of her religion, having been a Moslem from her earliest recollection.

On another occasion in a coffee-break in my office, I presented a question to my colleagues why in Java old documents of the pre-Islamic period were lost and ancient monuments were allowed to be ruined until the modern age? One of them who was not a devout Moslem answered, “Most Moslems who came to Java were merchants who had little interest in culture and history. They themselves did not build beautiful mesjid [mosques] that you see elsewhere.” Although others were not totally agreeable, his second point may be true. The building of the Great Mosque in Demak, probably the oldest mosque in Java built in the 15th century, was typical Java-style architecture with a hipped roof and a small tower with no arched door and windows, and the brick-made Minaret of the mosque in Kudus is supposed to be a former watchtower of Hindu-Java period, viz. Majapahit time[80] , [81]. It was after the middle of the 18th century when the courts of Mataram in Central Java and Cirebon in West Java became stabilised under the Dutch rule that people began to look back to the past and record the history, and to seriously foster such culture as wayang of both shadow-play and stage-play types, even though their religion was Islam. Just in case, I would say that those readers who are not familiar with Islamic societies should refrain from discussing religious matters in Indonesia.

To return to our subject of Batu Tulis, an old sketch showed that the site was surrounded with a hedge and a simple hut was placed to cover the main stones. Now the hut has been replaced with a solid brick-made building and cared for by a local lady who proudly says that her family has been responsible for keeping the site since her grandfather’s time. Pajajaran is the spiritual home for them, as well as the caretakers of the graveyard in the Botanical Garden, although their religion is not any more Hinduism but Islam.

In a green garden on the other side of the tamarind-lined road, Jalan Batu Tulis, stood an elegant mansion, called Istana Batu Tulis, built by the former President Soekarno [82]. It is said that Soekarno wished to obtain a magical power, which Sundanese people still believe dwells in the stone monument. The property belonging to the Soekarno family is not open to the public, but one can see the house and garden over the fence.

Let me add a small topic. When I visited the Botanical Garden recently, I found an interesting site that I missed before, in spite of having lived near-by and walking around the garden every week or month. Beside a footpath not far from the front gate, and from the Memorial to Lady Raffles, there was a flat stone, on which some strange characters were inscribed, along with the statues of Nandi and Vishnu. The information board said in modern Indonesian language that the characters inscribed were Sunda Kuno (Old Sundanese) and the meaning was “Not far from here is a lake”, as, in fact, a lake was found at a one-hundred-metre distance. I was first disappointed to know that the stone monument was not an ancient one but presumably erected either by Dr. Frideriech [83] in the 19th century or by Dr. Reinwaldt, the founder of the Garden, but was amused by the humour of a person who used the old letters for the inscription. As to the origin of the statues, it was written that they were discovered in an old pond in Kotabatu, Ciapus in the outskirts of Bogor. From the location, I guessed they would have been carvings of the Pajajaran era, but no literature that described the detailed history was found.

In Kotabatu village, several kilometres southwest of Bogor city centre, I saw that the pond had been converted to a rectangular fishing pond of swimming pool size, and villagers were dropping their lines in it. An old villager told a tradition that the area was surveyed by the Dutch in the 19th century. He also said that some Dutch and Japanese visited in recent years, but he did not hear any new plan of archaeological survey.

Although the Botanical Garden is a very famous sightseeing spot in Bogor where thousands of people visit throughout the year, few people walk to the graveyard of the Pajajaran queen or the monument and statues placed either by Dr. Friederich or Dr. Reinwaldt. People who visit Batu Tulis in the city and the stone monuments of Tarumanagara in Ciampea village in the suburb are also few. I thought the authority of the prefecture or the city should make more efforts to advertise those heritages, but not much would be expected from the office that recently destroyed and demolished the replica of prasasti, which had been placed in Taman Kencana several decades ago. The anniversary day of Bogor City, 3rd May, has been determined after the foundation of Pakuan Pajajaran (3rd May 1482), but I have never seen flags and boards on which the legends are mentioned.

Deviating from the main subject of this chapter, let me briefly review the birth and growth of the Buitenzorg Botanical Garden (now, the Bogor Botanical Garden, or Kebun Raya Bogor). Although this garden has long been open for the public, the original purpose of its establishment was not to show rare and curious plants for common people but to conduct botanical studies. When the East Indies, which had been occupied by the British for a while during the Napoleonic War, was returned to the Dutch in 1816, King Willem I despatched Dr. Casper Georg Carl Reinwaldt, who came from Harderwijk University [84] and later became a professor at Leiden, to the East Indies as an advisor for the new governor-general, Baron van der Capellen, with an expectation that the plantation industry could be a key industry in Java where the soil was fertile, plenty of water was available and the population was dense [85]. In fact, the Dutch had been planting various spice plants and coffee trees ever since the VOC era. As soon as he arrived in Java, Reinwaldt proposed to establish a research centre for botanical studies and became the first director of the botanical garden, which was opened in a land of forty-seven hectares in a corner of the governor-general’s estate.

In some books and articles, Reinwaldt is written in a deliberate manner that he was a German, but it does not look to be significant for the present writer. Since Germany in the 19th century prior to the formation of the German Empire on 18th January 1871 was yet to take the form of a modern country, those Germans who aspired to go abroad, which included Philipp Franz Balthasar von Siebold who was to be sent to Japan, went to Holland to seek a chance. As a school named the Reinwaldt Academy to teach museology and cultural heritage and a museum named the Sieboldhuis (Japan Museum) to house the articles collected by Siebold exist in Amsterdam and Leiden, respectively, Dutch people regard them as their country fellows.

A memorable person who worked for the development in the early stage of the botanical garden was Johanes Elias Teysmann who served as a gardener[86]. Oil palm ( Elaeis guineensis Arec), which is an important plant not only in Indonesia but also in the whole of Southeast Asia, originated in seeds, which he obtained from West Africa in 1848. The palm oil that is used for manufacturing our margarine and soap may have been obtained from the offspring of Teysmann’s seedlings. Cassava (Manihot esculena Euph), a common root vegetable that is also useful to supplement the shortage of rice in the tropic area, was discovered by Teysmann in Batam Island where the plant was merely planted for hedges. The white and sticky starch contained in the spindle-shaped root of 20–30 cm length is commonly served by grating and baking like a pancake, but it is also made into a fermented food, especially in West Java, called peuyeun in Sundanese or tape in Indonesian. Flamboyant tree ( Delonix regis Leg), the top part of which turns to a vivid red colour in the beginning of the rainy season everywhere in Indonesia, is said to have been transplanted by Teysmann from Singapore.

Teysmann also introduced cinchona from which quinine, the sovereign remedy for malaria, was extractable from South America and grew the tree in the High-Altitude Botanical Garden in Cibodas (a branch of the Buitenzorg Botanical Garden) established in 1882 and made the East Indies a major quinine supplier, which had a share of seventy-five percent in the world market. Quinine plantations exist in the Bandung Basin still today, even though the synthesis of the same medicine is possible.

It was also in the late 19th century that the cultivation of tea, which had become a common drink in Europe in the previous century and was the underlying cause of the Opium War, started in Java. Whilst the seeds of a tea plant (Camellia sinensis) obtained earlier in 1824 from Japan through Siebold did not fit the climate, the Indian species ( Camellia assamica) introduced in 1878 grew well in the land of West Java and plantations were developed all around there. The production of tea is prosperous until today in plantations in Gunung Mas, Ciwidey and Sukabumi.

Teysmann also worked for the sorting and rearrangement of plants in the garden in cooperation with his assistant, Justus Karl Hassakari. It was in the time of their activity that Alfred Russel Wallace visited there in 1861 and wrote in his book[87] that “the gardens are no doubt wonderfully rich in tropical and especially in Malayan plants, but there is a great absence of skilful laying-out; there are not enough men to keep the place thoroughly in order…” Hassakari proposed to build a library and a herbarium, which were completed in 1842 and 1844, respectively.

The person who brought up the Buitenzorg Botanical Garden to the number one tropical-plant research centre was Dr. Melchior Treub who was the director in 1880–1909. He made efforts to modernise research facilities and to enforce fundamental research, and promoted the studies on the causes and remedies of diseases of coffee tree, sugar cane and other plants.

The story of the rubber tree (Hevea Brasiliensis), the seeds of which were taken out of Brazil by an English explorer, Henry Wickham, sprouted in Kew Gardens in London and were transferred to Ceylon, Singapore and Java, is written in many books [88]. The first seedlings, which arrived in Buitenzorg in 1876, became the ancestors of rubber trees, which made Indonesia one of the major producers of natural rubber in the world.

Gutta percha[89], which had been used for making folk crafts and small tools, was found most suitable for the insulating covering of submarine cables after the invention of telegraphy and, when the exhaustion of trees [90] in jungles in Southeast Asia was jeopardised by extensive felling, the research to raise the seedlings and to grow the trees was conducted by Dr. Willem Burck and the first plantation was opened in Cipetir, Sukabumi Prefecture, in 1888. Then, Java met the whole demand of gutta percha in the world. The process to extract and purify the resin from the twigs and leaves, which was invented by Dr. Burck, long before the establishing of the so-called “macromolecular theory” in the 1920s, and which was to be useful until today, was such a perfect one that the present writer who used to engage in modern macromolecular research could not think of any better alternative method. I believe that Dr. Burck had grasped the characteristics and probably the peculiar molecular structure, now specified as a macro-molecule or a polymer, which is much larger than ordinary simple substances.

The evolution of the golf ball from the original hardwood ball or a lump of feather covered with leather to the solid resin ball and to the ball of rubber threads covered with resins owes much to gutta percha, which was the only natural thermoplastic. Gutta percha was also a chemical-resistant plastic and containers of hydrofluoric acid were seen in all chemistry laboratories in the world until the mid-1970s when cheap synthetic polyolefin became available. Unfortunately, the use of gutta percha is limited only in dental materials today. The late Dr. Budiman, an ex-member of Bogor Rubber Research Station, was much concerned about the future of the historic gutta percha plantation at Cipetir. In a meeting on gutta percha organised by The No. XIII Plantation Corporation and held in 2007 at Gunung Mas, the Governor of Sukabumi promised to consider preserving Cipetir as a cultural asset, but I have not visited there since then.

Cane sugar was also one of the most important estate crops and a special research laboratory was established in 1880 in Pasuruan, East Java, as Buitenzorg lacked the capacity. There, an outstanding new species, which was both disease-resistant and highly productive, was created [91] to raise Java to the largest sugar producer in the world beyond Cuba.

Dr. Melchior Treub also started a scheme for invited research fellows and opened a visitors’ laboratory in 1884. Marquis Yoshichika Tokugawa who visited there in 1921 from Japan wrote:

“The laboratory built in commemoration of Dr. Treub was most well equipped and open to visiting researchers from overseas. There were many microscopes and abundant chemicals, books and materials which were put at anyone’s disposal. A young fellow from abroad, called Dr. Boschma, showed me around. He took out a number of frogs from a box which he was studying. They were not special frogs, but he said he employed them for his study on the response of nerves against stimulus. The facilities were extremely good and I wished I could have stayed there for a while and be engaged in my work free from any disturbance.” [92]

The area of the botanical garden was expanded to sixty hectares in 1892 when Dr. Melchior Treub was in office and later to the present-day eighty-seven hectares in 1927. The new research laboratory built in 1914 to commemorate the great director with the name of “Treub Laboratorium” on the facade is still of use today. More than one dozen research institutions relating to biology, agriculture and forestry, as well as Bogor Agricultural University, located in Bogor were created with the botanical garden as their core. The fact that the botanical garden is the research centre for tropical plants in Indonesia is still unchanged today.

[1] R. Ng. Poerbatijaraka, De Batoe-Toelis bij Buitenzorg, Albrecht & Co., Batavia 1920.

[2] The decoding was first made by R. H. Th. Friederich in 1853, followed by K. F. Holle (1869), C. M. Pleyte (1911), Poerbatjaraka (1921), et al.

[3] The translation in the present text owes to Prof. Iratius Radiman, Bandung, who kindly studied both Sundanese and Dutch texts for the present writer. The year in Saka Calendar expressed by a string of four words was first interpreted as 5, 5, 2, 1, but the inscription of the words were weathered and the third word was also readable as 4. The year 1455 Saka (1533 AD) accorded with the records in Carita Parahiyangan and other documents. (Moh. Amir Sutaarga, Prabu Siliwangi: Atau Ratu Purana Prebu Guru Dewataprana Sri Baduga Maharaja Taru Haji Di Pakwan Pajajaran 1474–1513 , P.T. Duta Rakjat, Bandung 1965; Herwig Zahorka, The Sunda kingdoms of West Java: From Tarumanagara to Pakuan Pajajaran with the royal center of Bogor , Yayasan Cipta Loka Caraka, 2007). While the present translation is based on Prof. Poerbatjaraka, some lines could be interpreted differently. For instance, the phrase, “made it possible for vehicles to pass mountains” was rendered as “placed a stone to commemorate mountains”, “macadamised roads”, “made mountain-shape garden”, etc. (E.g. Adolf Heuken, The earliest Portuguese sources for the history of Jakarta , Cipta Loka Caraka, 2002; Hasan Djafar in, Ekspedisi Ciliwung, Penerbit Buku Kompas, 2009).

[4] Atja, Carita Parahiyangan: Naskah Titilar Karuhun Urang Sunda, Jajasan Kebudajaan Nusalarang, Bandung 1968. The text (in Sundanese was presented by the author through a personal friend and translated into modern Indonesian by courtesy of a student in Pajajaran University, Bandung. The English translation of the same text was uploaded later in:

http://sundanesecorner.org/2010/12/08/the-story-of-parahiyangan/

[5] The explanation in Yoneo Ishii (Ed.), Encyclopaedia of Indonesia, Domu-shuppan, Tokyo 1991 (石井米雄編「インドネシアの事典」, 童夢出版 1991) under “Pajajaran Kingdom”, that “According to the traditions in Sunda and Java as well as Batu Tulis in Bogor with the Old Javanese letter in the Sundanese language, Ratu Dewata founded the capital here in 1333” is not intelligible. Firstly, 1533 AD is more plausible than 1333 (Footnote 3). Secondly, the year is interpreted as the year when the stone monument was erected by Surawisesa, the 2nd king of Pakuan, not the year of the kingdom's foundation (See Footnote 3). Thirdly, the king is generally called Sri Baduga Maharaja, whilst Ratu Dewata usually designates the 3rd king reigning at Pakuan. Fourthly, the letter was the old Sundanese letter (Sunda Kuno).

[6] Saleh Danasasmita, Sejarah Bogor, Pemerintah Daerah Kotamadya DT II Bogor, 1983.

[7] According to the hypothesis of the present writer, the location was Ciaruteun, the place where Prasasti Ciaruteun and Prasasti Kebun Kopi were discovered (See Chapter 3).

[8] People of Galuh and Sunda were called orang air (water people) and orang gunung (mountain people), respectively. For instance, the former preferred the water burial, whereas internment was common among the latter. A folklore of crocodile existed in Galuh, whereas that of tiger did in Sunda (Saleh Danasasmita Footnote 6).

[9] Chinese text: 新拖國：新拖國有港, 水深六丈, 舟車出入, 兩岸皆民居。亦務耕種。架造屋宇, 悉用木植, 覆以椶櫚皮, 藉以木板, 障以籐篾。男女裸體, 以布纏腰, 剪髮僅留半寸。山產胡椒, 粒小而重, 勝於打板。地產東瓜, 甘蔗, 匏豆, 茄菜。但地無正官。好行剽掠, 番商罕至興販。

諸蕃志卷上・志國「新拖國」 (Nagoya University, Zhu fan zhi [Accounts of Various Barbarians] 1/2, Sunda Country (諸蕃志卷上・志國「新拖國」), http://toyoshi.lit.nagoya-u.ac.jp/maruha/kanseki/zhufanzhi1.html). Some doubtful Chinese characters have been replaced with reference to other literature.

[10] E.g. Hasan Djafar in, Ekspedisi Ciliwung, Penerbit Buku Kompas, 2009.

[11] J. Noorduyn, Three Old Sundanese poems, KITLV Press 2006; J. Noorduyn, “Bujangga Manik’s journeys through Java; topographical data from an old Sundanese source”,Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 138, no 4, Leiden, 1982. Page 413–442.

(See the later part of this chapter).

[12] Yakob Sumarjo, Khazanah pantun Sunda, Kelir, Bandung 2006. The author noted that the source was a copy possessed by Raden Demang Cakradijayah who died in 1853, but older copies must have existed. In fact, the copy I saw in Sumedang was a copy of 1675 ( See the description in the later part of this chapter). The full text of Cariosan Prabu Siliwangi was found later in Agus Setia Permana, “Balangantrang: Cariosan Prabu Siliwangi”, http://balangantrang.blogspot.jp/2010/05/cariosan-prabu-siliwangi.html.

[13] Moh. Amir Sutaarga, Prabu Siliwangi: Atau Ratu Purana Prebu Guru Dewataprana Sri Baduga Maharaja Taru Haji di Pakwan Pajajaran, Pustaka Jaya, Jakarta 1965. In the real history, the couple was firstly crowned at Kawali and secondly at Pakuan.

[14] The name of a place to the northeast of Cirebon, not Singapore Island off the tip of Malay Peninsula.

[15] “Wangi” literally means “flavour”. “Siliwangi” is said to mean the successor of the great king, Prabu Wangi. About the death of Prabu Wangi (Prabu Linggabuana) in a battle in Bubat, East Java, see a later part of this chapter.

[16] Carita Ratu Pakuan “Naskah Carita Ratu Pakuan (Kropak 410)” http://babadsunda.blogspot.com/2010/07/naskah-carita-ratu-pakuan-kropak-410.html. The book is said to have been written in the late 17th or the early 18th century by a poet, Kai Raga, in Gunung Srimanganti, the present-day Garut county. Although there is a view that this is a sequel of Cariosan Prabu Siliwangi (Ann Kumar, John H. McGlynn, Illuminations: The Writing Traditions of Indonesia, Weatherhill 1996), it may not necessarily be true because the place of the old capital is different. The old capital is considered to have been Kawali (in the present writer’s understanding), although it is noted as Galuh in Saleh Danasasmita’s book (Footnote 6.).

[17] Ajip Rosidi, Mundinglaya di Kusumah, Penerbit Nuansa, Bandung 1956/Yakob Sumarjo , Simbol-Simbol Artefak Budaya Sunda: Tafsir-Tafsir Pantun Sunda , Kelir, Bandung 2003.

[18] Andrew N. Weintraub, “Ngahudang Carita Anu Baheula (To awaken an ancient story): An introduction to the stories of Pantun Sunda”, Southeast Asia Paper No. 34, University of Hawaii at Manoa 1991.

[19] Amanda Clara, Cerita Rakyat Dari Sabang Sampai Merauke, Pustaka Widyatama 2008.

[20] According to the chronicle, the mother of Surawisesa was Kentring Manik Mayang. Note that Ambetkasih bore no legitimate child; Sumbanglarang had three children.

[21] Tome Pires, Armando Cortesao (edit), The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires and the Book of Francisco Rodriguez Volumes 1 and 2 , Hakluyt Society, London, 1944 (Google Books）/Japanese translation by Yu Aida, Koji Iizuka, Minoru Izawa, Seiichi Izumi, Seiichi Iwao: Tome Pires, Tohoshokokuki (Daikokai Series V), Iwanami Shoten 1966 (トメピレス (会田由, 飯塚浩二, 井沢実, 泉靖一, 岩生成一訳)「東方諸国記 (大航海時代叢書V)」, 岩波書店 1966).

[22] In reality, there were three, Ambetkasih, Subanglarang and Kentring Manik Mayang.

[23] Joan de Barros, Asia de Joan de Barros [II], Lisbon 1953/Japanese translation by Shigeru Ikuta, Mineo Ikegami: Joan de Barros, History of Asia (1), (2), Iwanami-Shoten 1981 (ジョアン・デ・バロス (生田滋, 池上岑夫訳)「アジア史 (1), (2)」, 岩波書店, 1981).

[24] Polo (translated by R. E. Latham), The Travels, Penguin Classics, London 1958. The original title was Il Milione ( The Million). While the English title is rather too simple, the common title in Japanese translation, The record of seeing and hearing in the Orient (東方見聞録) is too artificial in the present writer’s opinion. Probably, only a few people in Japan know the original title and its significance.

[25] Joan de Barros (Footnote 23).

[26] In Cariosan Prabu Siliwangi (1) Subanglarang was the daughter of Minister Mangkbumi and Ki Gedheng Tapa was her brother, and (2) the girl whom Siliwangi obtained after a competition was Larangtapa, daughter of Prabu Singapura.

[27] Saleh Danasasmita (Footnote 6).

[28] Robert Wessing, “A change in the forest: myth and history in West Java”, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 1 March 1993. The origin of the story is not shown in the book but supposed to have been Wawacan Prabu Kean Santang ( The Song of King Kean Santang).

[29] Kian Santang was a daughter of Nyai Subanglarang and Walangsungsang was her brother.

[30] Tome Pires (Footnote 20).

[31] Heuken, SJ Adolf, Historical Sites of Jakarta, 6th Ed., Cipta Loka Caraka Foundation, Jakarta 2000.

[32] Jan Huygen van Linschoten, Itinerario, voyage ofte schipvaart naer Oost Portugaels Indien , 1696, Amsterdam/ Japanese translation by Iwao et al: Linschote, Tohoannaiki, Iwanami Shoten 1968 (岩生成一, 渋沢元則, 中村孝志訳)「東方案内記」, 岩波書店 1968)

[33] Parung Angsana is the present-day Tanah Baru in the northern suburb of Bogor. Cipaku exists in the same name in Bogor city. According to Winker, the width of the road and the distance was three metres and 2.5 kilometres, respectively. The distance matches with the present map.

[34] Saleh Danasasmita (Footnote 6).

[35] It is said it has been designed after Blenheim Palace, the home of the Duke of Marlborough, in Oxfordshire, England, although the scale is incomparably much smaller. (Demetrius Charles Boulger, “Bogor – A Profile”, Asian Review Vol. 51, 1955/ Google Books).

[36] In Lutung Kasarung tale, viz. in Stamford Raffles’s History of Java, Gelap Nyawang and Kidang Pananjung were said to be the sons of Lutung Kasarung (Manistri, the 11th king of Kendan/Galuh or Dharmasakti, the 9th king of Karang Kamulyan, reigned 783–99AD). Did those chamberlains live for 600 years until the Pajajaran period, as in the Sundanese belief that they had eternal lives?

[37] Jakob Sumardjo, Paham Kekuasaan Sunda 2008 in:

http://forumbebas.com/thread-22622.html

[38] Ranggasutrasna (Ki Ngabei), Ranggasutrasna (Raden Ngabei), Paku Buwana IV (Sunan of Surakarta), Darusuprapta, Tim Penyadur,Centhini, Tambangraras – Amongraga Jilid１, Balai Pustaka, (1999). (Indonesian Translation). Serat Centhini is a book in which the story of journeys of three siblings of Sunan Giri Prapen (the first son Jayengresmi, the second son Jayengsari, daughter Rancangkapti and the spouses of the first son and the daughter who married later) who escaped from their palace in Giri, Gresik, East Java, when it was attacked by Sultan Agung of Mataram in the early half of the 17th century. The situation of various places in Java Island where they visited and the words of conversation with scholars whom they met were recorded in details. The book edited in 1815 in the Solonese palace consists of twelve volumes. See more details in Chapter 6 Appendix: Jayabaya Prophecies.

[39] In the following abridged translation book based on the original text, one of the stones is written as “a flat stone”. Suwito Santoso, Kestity Pringgoharjono, The Centhini story: The Javanese journey of life: based on the original Serat Centhini, Marshall Cavendish, 2006.

[40] It is recorded that Mt. Salak erupted at least five times in 1780–1938 and once in 1699, whereas Mt. Gede did twenty-one times in 1747–1957 (Oregon State University, “Volcano World” http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/salak (Source of Information: T. Simkin and L. Siebert, Volcanoes of the World: Geoscience Press, Tucson, Arizona 1994).

They are supposed to have been active also before then, although no records are available.

[41] A saying of a 16th-century Protestant lawyer and writer, François Hotman, in Franco-Gallia: Or, an Account of the Ancient Free State of France, and Most Other Parts of Europe, Before the Loss of Their Liberties [1574] .

http://www.gutenberg.org/files/17894/17894-h/17894-h.htm

[42] The hereditary system in the Dutch system is said to have been modelled after the clan system of Tokugawa Era Japan. (J. W. B. Money, Java or How to Manage a Colony (1861), Oxford University Press, Singapore 1985). After Indonesia’s independence, a bupati (regional governor) is appointed by the Minister of Interior. Such countries in which governors, mayors and village chiefs are chosen by direct election are rather rare in the world, save USA and some other countries like Japan. For instance, the Mayor of London was elected for the first time in 2000 AD.

[43] A derivative form of wayang, the famous shadow play in which a picture scroll of Ramayana or some other story is used ( See Chapter 6).

[44] In the Profil Museum Prabu Geusan Ulun (brochure), the material is written as Kertas (paper). It is not wrong, but Daluang would be more precise.

[45] Soegiarto, Kinarti Aprilani, Graveyard in the Bogor Botanical Gardens, Bogor 1999 (This book might be a private print because no publication record has been found). The book legends have been found in the Bogor Botanical Gardens Library's Book Catalogue as, Publisher: Prosea Network Office, Year: 1999, Collation: 24 pages, Language: Dutch/English, but the present wirter has obtained a photocopy of the book (June 2019).

[46] Fadjroel Rachman, Bulan Jingga dalam Kepala – Sebuah Novel, Gramedia 2002. The period of Prabu Siliwangi’s reign and the year of the creation of the graves in the citation are doubtful but are refrained from argument as they were descriptions in a novel.

[47] “Makam Ratu Galuh” by anonymous writer about the tomb of the Queen of Galuh.

http://www.kaskus.us/showthread.php?p=12544441#post12544441 (28 February 2007). The article has been archived in, http://archive.kaskus.co.id/thread/4033287/2840

[48] Buitenzorg Scientific Centre, Buitenzorg Scientific Centre (brochure), Archipel Drukkerij en T. Boekhuis, Buitenzorg 1948. Specifically, the theory is assumed to correspond to the one speculated on the basis of old plays by Suhamir and Salmun cited in Saleh Danasasmita’s book (Saleh Danasasmita, Footnote 6).

[49] In the list of kings in Saleh Danasasmita’s book (Footnote 6/Appendix in chapter 3) are three additional kings, Tariwulan (799–806), Welengan (806–13), Linggabumi (813–52), after the 9th king.

[50] Yakob Sumarjo, Simbol-simbol artefak budaya Sunda: tafsir-tafsir pantun Sunda , Kelir, Bandung 2003. The details of the story are different in other versions, e.g. Andrew N. Weintraub, “Ngahudang Carita Anu Baheula (To Awaken an Ancient Story): An introduction to the stories of Pantun Sunda”, Southeast Asia Paper No. 34, University of Hawaii 1991. Raden Aria Banga who ruled the area to the east of Cipamari (Brebes River) in this tale is considered to correspond to King Sanjaya, the 5th king of Kamulyan, who moved to Central Java and founded the Sanjaya Kingdom, but the time is reversed.

[51] On the southeast slope of Mount Gede/Mount Pangrango at 885 m from the sea-level is a site called “Situs Gunung Padang”. While the site is considered to have been a sacred place opened in 2000 BC, a local tradition says it was a place connected to Prabu Siliwangi. In “The story of Bujangga Manik”, the hero visited there during his training travel.

[52] In Serat Baron Sakhender, a story after the fall of the Pajajaran Kingdom written in 18th-century Solo was an ascetic, “Ajar Sukarsi” (Chapter 1). Apart from the time difference, the “Ajar Sukaresi” in Mundinglaya Di Kusumah might be the same person.

[53] Till Dalton (Illust), Lutung Kasarung, G. Kolff & Co., Bandung, ca. 1950, etc.

[54] E.g. Christopher Torchia, Indonesian Idioms and Expressions: Colloquial Indonesian at Work , Tuttle 2007; Andrew N. Weintraub, “Ngahudang Carita Anu Baheula (To Awaken an Ancient Story): An introduction to the stories of Pantun Sunda”, Southeast Asia Paper No. 34, University of Hawaii 1991.

[55] T. S. Raffles, The History of Java, Vol. II, London 1817 (Reprint with an introduction by John Bastin, Oxford University Press, Singapore 1988).

[56] J. Noorduyn, A. Teeuw, Three Old Sundanese Poems, KITLV Press 2006.

[57] While a mountain called Gunung Patuha exists 35 km to the southwest of the present-day Bandung, the location of Lingga Payung is unknown.

[58] Virile member, the symbol of Hinduism.

[59] With regards to the junk from Bali, the width and the length were indicated as 8 and 25 fathoms (14.6 m and 45.7 m), respectively.

[60] In the whole Java Island, Prasasti Sukabumi, dated as 25th March 804 AD, discovered in Pare near Kediri is the first example of non-Sanskrit inscription (Jawa Kuno), according to P. J. Zoetmulder, Kalangwan, A Survey of Old Javanese Literature , Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, 1974. Note that this Sukabumi is not Sukabumi in West Java.

[61] Garut, a town, located between Bandung and Ciamis.

[62] Marquis Tokugawa (translated by M. Iguchi), Journeys to Java, ITB Press, Bandung 2004/Marquis Tokugawa (diterjemahkan oleh Ririn Anggraeni dan Apriyanti Isanasari), Perdjalanan Moenoedjoe Jawa, Penerbit ITB 2006 (徳川義親「じゃがたら紀行」, 郷土出版社 1931 (十字屋書店 1943, 中公文庫 1975).

[63] A kind of bamboo-made rattling instrument. While traditional ones had only four tones, modern angklung have adopted the diatonic scale. It is said that angklung originates from the former australoids, known as Kalang (wild devils), who did not become extinct until the early Hindu period (D. M. Campbell, Java: Past and Present, Vol. I, William Heinemann, London 1915). The inhabitation of Kalang is found in the descriptions in The Book of Kings in the Archipelago (Saleh Danasasmita, Footnote 6), around the arrival of Aji Saka (78 AD).

[64] Kara, another name of Yama, the king of the deceased.

[65] Daigoro Chihara, A history of the construction of shrines and temples in Indonesia , NHK Publishing 1975 (千原大五郎「インドネシア社寺建築史」, 日本放送出版協会 1975).; Ryuken Sawa (Ed.), Historical remains and art in Indonesia, NHK Publishing 1973 (佐和隆研編「インドネシアの遺跡と美術」, 日本放送出版協会 1973).

[66] Perpustakaan Nasional RI, “Kepustakaan Candi: Jawa Barat – Candi Bojongmenje”.

http://candi.pnri.go.id/temples/deskripsi-jawa_barat-candi_bojongmenje

[67] The custom is mentioned in Ma-Huan’s The Overall Survey of the Ocean’s Shores as: “For the wedding ceremony, a male goes first to the female’s house and the parents-in-law receive the bride three days later… (其婚姻之禮, 則男子先至女家, 成親三日後迎其婦…)”. Nagoya University, Ma Huan, Ying yai Sheng lan (馬歡, 瀛涯勝覽), http://toyoshi.lit.nagoya‑u.ac.jp/ maruha /kanseki/yingyashenglan1.html; Ma Huan, Translated from the Chinese text edited by Feng Ch’eng-Chuin; with introduction, notes and appendices by J. V. G. Mills , Hakluyt Society, Cambridge 1970.)

[68] The Oath of Gajah Mada, also called The Oath of Palapa, in which Gajah Mada was said to have vowed to abstain from palapa (spices?) until the whole archipelago was conquered.

[69] In Hindu societies, there was a custom called “suttee”, in which wives committed suicide after the death of their husbands.

[70] Wirasutisna, Haksan, Kidung Sunda I, Departmen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Jakarta: 1980; Claire Holt, Art in Indonesia: Continuities and Change, Cornell University Press, 1967; P. J. Zoetmulder, Kalangwan, A Survey of Old Javanese Literature, Martinus Nijhoff, Den Haag, 1974.

[71] Serat Pararaton atawa Katuturanira Ken Angrok ( The Book of Genealogy or the Recorded Story about Ken Angrok ) written by an anonymous author in 1481 and 1600 AD. English translation: I. Gusti Putu Phalgunadi, The Pararaton: A Study of the Southeast Asian Chronicle, Sundeep Prakashan, New Delhi, India, 1996.

[72] Stuart Robson (trans.), Desawarnana (Nagarakertagama) by Mpu Prapanca, KITLV Press, Leiden, 1995. The book, consisting of 98 stanzas and 1,536 lines, is alleged to have been written by a Buddhist teacher, pen-named Prapanca, who accompanied the inspection tours of Hayam Wuruk, to praise the king. The book did not mention the Bubat War.

[73] E.g. http://driwancybermuseum.wordpress.com/. . . ., http://mentarisenja.wordpress.com/?s=bubat, http://www.wacananusantara.org/6/18/galuh

[74] In the same age that Yuan attacked Japan in 1274 and 1281, Khubilai Khan sent a mission to Java in 1280, 1281 and 1289, but his demands of subjugation were rejected. In 1292, a large navy was despatched, but they were defeated by the clever trick of Raden Wijaya who was to be the founder of Majapahit. (See Chapter 6.)

[74a] The route to Bubat of Sundanese fleet which carried the Sundanese royal family. Dupilicated from: Andityas Prabantoro (ed), Perang Bubat: Tragedi di Balik Kisah Cinta Gajah Mada dan Dyah Pitaloka, Aan Merdeka Permana 2009 (Notes translated into English).

The type of junk on which the Sundanese royal party was board from Ujung Galuh to Bubat. Duplicated from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Bubat

[75] Kolam Segaran (Kolam=Pool, Segaran=Ocean). The precise size was 375 × 175 m. (Ann R. Kinney, Marijke J. Klokke, Lydia Kieven, Worshiping Siva and Buddha: The temple art of East Java, University of Hawaii Press, 2003). According to an archaeologist friend, this reservoir was imitated two hundred years later when Tasikarti Reservoir was constructed in Banten Kingdom, West Java.

[76] According to a caretaker of Trowulan. According to Jonathan Rigg, The Journal of the Indian archipelago and eastern Asia (ed. by J. R. Logan). Singapore Vol. II, 1848, 537, it was 14" × 8.5" × 2" (35 cm × 21.5 cm × 5 cm).

[77] Alfred Russel Wallace, The Malay Archipelago (1869), Oxford University Press, Singapore 1985. “The extreme perfection of brick-works astonished me. The bricks were exceedingly fine and hard, with sharp angles and true surfaces. They are laid with great exactness, without visible mortar or cement, yet somehow fastened together so that the joints are hardly visible, and sometimes, the two surfaces coalesce in a most comprehensive manner. Such admirable brick-work I have never seen before or since.”

[78] “The rule of weight: 1 Jin = 20 Liang, 1 Liang = 20 Quian; The rule of volume: 1 Shen = 10 Ge.”. Chinese text: 「斤秤之法, 毎斤二十兩, 毎兩十六錢, 毎錢四姑邦, ・・・。升斗之法, 截竹為升, 為一姑刺, 該中國官升一升八合, ．．．」. Hiroshi Ogawa,Expeditions of the Chinese to the south – Ying-yai Sheng-lan, Yoshikawa-koubunkan 1988 (小川博「中国人の南方見聞録－瀛涯勝覧」, 吉川弘文館 1988).

[79] Ethnically, Scottish and English are Celtic and Anglo Saxon, respectively.

[80] Eric Oey (Ed.), Java (Periplus Adventure Guide), Periplus (HK) 1997.

[81] Later, the present writer has read an account as follows. In the 15th century after the fall of the Majapahit Kingdom, it was not easy for Moslems to teach the new religion to people who were accustomed to Hinduism and Buddhism. In a meeting of Wali Songo (Nine saints), a young saint, Sunan Kalijogo made a proposal to allow to place gamelan in their mosque, because their drum had only made the people deaf towards the teachings of Islam. Can we not place the gamelan beside the drum as tradition and to adopt the principle of “Container of Hindu-Buddhism and the contents of Islam”? (Suwito Santoso, Kestity Pringgoharjono, The Centhini story: The Javanese journey of life: based on the original Serat Centhini, Marshall Cavendish, 2006). The reason why exotic mosques were not constructed at that time might be attributable to this principle.

[82] Peter Turner, Java, Lonely Planet Publications, 1999.

[83] The correct spelling would be Friederich. R. H. Th. Friederich was a linguist who authored, Over inscriptien van Java en Sumatra, voor het eerst ontcijferd , Batavia, Lange & Co., 1857 and other books.

[84] A famous university established in 1648. It was abolished in 1811 under the French occupation.

[85] C. R. Boxer, The Dutch Seaborne Empire 1600–1800, Penguin Books–Hutchinson, London 1990.

[86] J. Levelink, A. Mawdsley, T. Rijnberg, Four Guided Walks: Bogor Botanic Garden, Bogorindo Botanics, Bogor 1996.

[87] Alfred R. Wallace, The Malay Archipelago (1869), Oxford University Press, Singapore 1985.

[88] E.g. Tsurutato Nakagawa, A story of rubber, Ootsuki-shoten 1984 (中川鶴太郎「ゴム物語」大月書店, 1984); Henry Hobhouse, Seeds of Wealth, Shoemaker and Hoard, New York 2003.

[89] The molecular structure of gutta percha is poly-1, 4-trans -isoprene, that is an isomer of natural rubber, poly-1, 4- cis-isoprene. It is solid at room temperature as the melting temperature is 64~65°C, whilst the melting point of rubber is -5~0°C.

[90] A species named after Dr. Burck, “Palaquium gutta burck” is most productive and famous.

[91] Peter Boomgaard, “The making and unmaking of tropical science; Dutch research in Indonesia, 1600–2000”, Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 162-2/3:191-217, 2006.

[92] Marquis Tokugawa (Footnote 62. This citation is new in this English edition, not in the Japanese edition.